Button Repair Directions

In Search of an Orchid as Big as a Plate

One day, not long ago, I sat at the round table in front of the Yellow Rose, drinking a cold Iquitena with my good friend, Ryan, talking about the many beautiful orchids and epiphytes we have observed in the rainforest near Iquitos, Peru. Ryan nodded his head.

He glanced over his shoulder, leaned toward me, and said in a low voice, "My spies, which are wrong ninety percent of the time, tell me that a new species of orchid has been discovered near Moyobamba the size of a dinner plate."

"Sounds more like the size of a pile of horse manure to me."

"My spies work for INRENA."

"I always wanted to go to Moyobamba."

"They say the weather is perfect every day and every night."

"I think I will go tomorrow."

"You know about the Lacey Act?"

"How can I not know, you lecture me on it once a week!"

"I only want you to be careful and stay out of trouble. This orchid is unknown to science, it is unnamed. You can not touch it, hold it, move it, transport it, or export it. You understand?"

"I understand! I only want to look at it. Smell it's scent, photograph it for posterity. That surely doesn't violate the Lacey Act, does it?"

"Be careful, it's intoxicating."

I spent one day researching and packing. My best friend, Marmelita, and I left the next day for Tarapoto, a quiet, clean, farming community. We found an inexpensive hostel, two blocks from the central plaza, took a motokar to the market and made a meal out of fresh milk, whole grain corn bread, good cheese, fruits, and nuts from the local farms.

My Nikon D-70 camera malfunctioned and the man at the camera repair shop loaned us his digital Canon while he worked on mine. In the afternoon we hired a car to take us up to the High Cascade Waterfalls, a great place to swim and enjoy nature. In the evening we ate delicious, giant, fresh, aqua-farmed Malaysian shrimp and washed it down with a pitcher of mango juice. The next morning my camera was still in pieces so we decided to spend another day in Tarapoto.

Tarapoto is not a bad place for nature lovers. It was near here the English botanist and explorer, Richard Spruce, discovered and named the Platycerium Andinum, or Staghorn Fern. Spruce's specimen died before getting back to England and it was not until 1969 that Lee Moore, the Adventurer, rediscovered the staghorn in the vicinity of Tarapoto and got a live specimen back to civilization.

I fondly remember growing two staghorn ferns in the shower of my bathroom in Indiana, in the 70s, doing my best to recreate the tropical rainforest environment. When I found my first magnificent specimen in the wild rainforest, I realized how pitiful my houseplants had been. This monster circled most of the tree, had fronds hanging down five feet or more, and the 35 shield fronds grew nearly two feet tall. If my house plants had reached their natural potential, there would not have been room for me to have taken a shower.

The next morning my camera still did not work. I purchased the used Canon 3.2 megapixel I had borrowed the day before. Compared to the Nikon at 5 megapixels, with the wonderful lens and all the buttons and functions that I know and love, this was a big loss. With no practice and the manual in Spanish, the odds of getting great photos were about the same as finding an orchid big as a plate.

Moyobamba is the Orchid City, with 2,500 species of orchids growing in the high jungle around the town. Marmelita and I hiked jungle trails, saw hundreds of species in full bloom, soaked in the hot springs, went to more waterfalls, and pursued tips to the nearby villages of Lamas and Rioja. We had a good adventure, accomplished most of what we set out to do, and learned a lot. We learned the truth is rarely heard, seldom seen, and difficult to photograph. The orchid is more the size of a saucer than a plate, but it is one of the most beautiful, rare, and valuable blossoms I have ever laid eyes on. Here is most of its story, woven together from several sources we interviewed in and around Moyobamba. Some of the locations and most of the juicy gossip I am keeping to myself.

A farmer named Faustino Medina set in motion an Indiana Jones style adventure by discovering a large group of pretty flowering plants. He dug some and sold them at a crossroad truck stop called El Progresso, for $1 apiece. An orchid collector from Virginia, like a typical gringo, paid $3.60 for three of them. He can be forgiven for not negotiating the price. He knew they could be worth $10,000 apiece and make him famous. I imagine him running down the road, looking over his shoulder, cradling his three treasures, but an important part of the story is he used Lee Moore's taxi driver, Jose Mendoza. He did not have to run; Mendoza drove him directly to Moore, who confirmed, "You have the Holy Grail of Orchids."

Wild orchids are protected by the international CITES treaty. This orchid was new to science and was unnamed. The catch is that only 23 experts in the world can name an orchid and none of them are in Peru. To gain possession of an unnamed, world-class orchid is hard. To get a legal permit to take the orchid to an official taxonomist is next to impossible. Legend has it that Lee Moore has smuggled most of the things that can be smuggled. His advice was to put it in a suitcase and go straight to the Marie Selby Botanical Gardens in Sarasota, Florida. They are affiliated with five taxonomists, the most of any botanical garden in the world. The collector walked through customs, worked up some papers, and realized his dream by having the lady slipper orchid named after him, Phragmipedium kovachii.

It is ok to build a road and destroy a million orchids. One gets a permit. It is not ok to take an orchid out of the country in a suitcase. That it has been done many times is not a defense, and it was not a defense this time. Federal agents confiscated the plant and charged and convicted the collector and the botanical garden of possession of an endangered species and illegal trade. They paid fines, served probation, and suffered loss of reputation.

At approximately the same time, the taxi driver, Jose Mendoza, raided Faustino Medina's patch, taking every plant, and selling them on the black market to dealers in Ecuador and Lima. Lee Moore has the other two plants left by the collector, and has acquired 200 others that he is raising and propagating for the time when they are legal to export.

Faustino discovered another patch and seems to have sold several hundred for $4 apiece to a rogue with a pickup truck named Kenneth Reategui, who has a small recreational park and restaurant on the outskirts of Tarapoto. He fenced them to an orchid dealer in Lima for what is understood to be a small fortune. An article appeared in the Orchidist, about the last known site of P. kovachii. A thousand mature plants. It was considered to be a safe site because of its inaccessibility, requiring a "hike from hell." Two weeks later a helicopter with cargo boxes swooped in and stole all but two plants too high up on the cliff to reach. Armed men who would not know an orchid from a cactus are fingering the hibiscus.

Intoxicating.

Anyone interested in having an adventure, photographing orchids, touring Tarapoto, Moyobamba and the surrounding countryside, swimming under waterfalls, and soaking in natural hot springs can contact me to arrange the details.

About the Author

Bill Grimes owns and operates Dawn on the Amazon Tours and Cruises, custom cruises on the upper Amazon River and its tributaries from Iquitos, Peru. For details, visit his website at http://www.dawnontheamazon.com

Instructions for Replacing sealife DC800 DC1000 Button Reaches May 2009

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Photo Directions

Can I take photo in sony c510?

I just want to know whether I can take photos using the center menu button between the direction keys instead of using the dedicated shutter key like the one in digital camera.

Thanks

yes and u can use diection keys for each purpose like
< > For navigating between video and still
^ v for zoom
and u can also num pad for different purpose like changing image size, night mode etc.

Update your GPS with new software, new maps and red light and speed photo camera locations (part 1)

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Repair Direction

Olympus Camera Battery is Stuck -- how do I get it out?

I have had my Olympus C765 camera for years, and today I think I might have inserted the lithium-ion battery in the opposite orientation. I did not notice much resistance when inserting it, so I thought it was fine, but the camera does not turn on. I assume I have inserted the battery in the wrong direction.

The spring latch moves, but the battery does not pop up as usual, and the battery is almost flush with the battery slot opening.

Other than taking it to a repair shop (I need the camera now), what can I do to get the battery out? If this has happened to you, let me know if you have any do-it-yourself tricks to unstick this battery!

Turn the camera upside down and slap the battery chamber against the palm of your hand to see if the battery will dislodge. Don't use any tools! If worse comes to worse, take it in to be serviced.

Yellow Cab in Dallas, TX - Accident caught on camera!! (May 28th. 2010)

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Reader More

Must Read Reviews Before Buying a Digital Camera

 

For instance, digital camera review are generally summarized in table format, with stars or numbered ratings & expert opinions. The reason for this is that this format makes it very clear for the reader to understand and compare.

 

A good digital camera reviews should have a wide reaching expectation & consider as many aspects as possible. It should have the requirements of a variety of buyer`s covered, considering the possible uses and price ranges that may be required.

The good digital camera review should also offer insightful opinions in terms of performance, portability, features & cost. It should be easy to follow but also informative, with a balanced argument and also a more in depth description available for any interested buyer. It should compare one product to another, to provide the consumer with the best possible choice. Good digital camera reviews should also be honest; to make sure the consumer truly gets what suits their needs and expectations.

Firstly, the cost should be considered and clearly stated. This is a necessity as all potential buyers have a budget in mind when purchasing a digital camera. The review should explain whether the product is good value for the price bracket that it covers, and if so, in what way. There should be reviews of several types or make of digital camera for each price range so that the consumer can understand what is fully available. The review should also try and alert any buyers of possible available discounts and deals that are realistically obtainable.

An excellent review will also go one step further and investigate the product a little further to give the reader the best possible service. This may include testing out any available accessories, or assessing the level of support from the manufacturers or the time taken to deal with repairs. These added extras can make the choice much more informed, and help the potential buyer from making possible mistakes.

 

Most importantly, the best digital camera review should be user friendly, with technical information either explained in layman terms or kept to a minimum unless it is a review specifically aimed at professional photographers. It should appeal to its market and provide the information required.

 

About the Author

Daniel Stallon is an expert reviewer of digital electronics products and have a look at some Digital Camera Reviews, Cell Phone Reviews . He is working for alaTest that offers latest reviews of products, price comparison & features from worldwide source of reviews & product tests.

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Door Repair Directions

Channel Tunnel

Origins

Proposals and attempts

Key dates

1802

Albert Mathieu put forward a cross-Channel tunnel proposal.

1875

The Channel Tunnel Company Ltd began preliminary trials

1882

The Abbot's Cliff heading had reached 897 yards (820 m) and that at Shakespeare Cliff was 2,040 yards (1,870 m) in length

January 1975

A UKrance government backed scheme that started in 1974 was cancelled

February 1986

The Treaty of Canterbury was signed allowing the project to proceed

June 1988

First tunnelling commenced in France

December 1988

UK TBM commenced operation

December 1990

The service tunnel broke through under the Channel

May 1994

The tunnel was formally opened by HM The Queen and President Mitterrand

Mid 1994

Freight and passenger trains commenced operation

November 1996

A fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel

November 2007

High Speed 1, linking London to the tunnel, opened

September 2008

Another fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel

December 2009

Eurostar trains stranded in the tunnel due to condensation affecting the trains' electrical hardware

In 1802, French mining engineer Albert Mathieu put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with illumination from oil lamps, horse-drawn coaches, and an artificial island mid-Channel for changing horses.

In the 1830s, Frenchman Aim Thom de Gamond performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between Calais and Dover. Thom de Gamond explored several schemes and, in 1856, he presented a proposal to Napoleon III for a mined railway tunnel from Cap Gris-Nez to Eastwater Point with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank at a cost of 170 million francs, or less than GB7 million.

Thom de Gamond's 1856 plan for a cross-Channel link, with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank mid-Channel

In 1865, a deputation led by George Ward Hunt proposed the idea of a tunnel to the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the day, William Ewart Gladstone.

After 1867, William Low and Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw promoted ideas, but none were implemented. An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel. In 1881, British railway entrepreneur Sir William Watkin and French Suez Canal contractor Alexandre Lavalley were in the Anglo-French Submarine Railway Company that conducted exploratory work on both sides of the Channel. On the English side a 2.13-metre (7 ft) diameter Beumont-English boring machine dug a 1,893-metre (6,211 ft) pilot tunnel from Shakespeare Cliff. On the French side, a similar machine dug 1,669 metres (5,476 ft) from Sangatte. The project was abandoned in May 1882, owing to British political and press campaigns advocating that a tunnel would compromise Britain's national defences. These early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project.

In 1955, defence arguments were accepted to be irrelevant because of the dominance of air power; thus, both the British and French governments supported technical and geological surveys. Construction work commenced on both sides of the Channel in 1974, a government-funded project using twin tunnels on either side of a service tunnel, with capability for car shuttle wagons. In January 1975, to the dismay of the French partners, the British government cancelled the project. The government had changed to the Labour Party and there was uncertainty about EC membership, cost estimates had ballooned to 200% and the national economy was troubled. By this time the British Priestly TBM was ready and the Ministry of Transport was able to do a 300 m experimental drive. This short tunnel would however be reused as the starting and access point for tunnelling operations from the British side.

In 1979, the "Mouse-hole Project" was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain. The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel, but without shuttle terminals. The British government took no interest in funding the project, but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said she had no objection to a privately funded project. In 1981 British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and Franois Mitterrand agreed to set up a working group to look into a privately funded project, and in April 1985 promoters were formally invited to submit scheme proposals. Four submissions were shortlisted:

a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/Franceanche (CTG/F),

Eurobridge: a 4.5 km span suspension bridge with a roadway in an enclosed tube

Euroroute: a 21 km tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges, and

Channel Expressway: large diameter road tunnels with mid-channel ventilation towers.

The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name "Flexilink". In 1975 there was no campaign protesting a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state-owned. Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987. Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but ventilation issues, concerns about accident management, and fear of driver mesmerisation led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project.

Arrangement

A block diagram describing the organisation structure used on the project. Eurotunnel is the central organisation for construction and operation (via a concession) of the tunnel

The British Channel Tunnel Group consisted of two banks and five construction companies, while their French counterparts, Franceanche, consisted of three banks and five construction companies. The role of the banks was to advise on financing and secure loan commitments. On 2 July 1985, the groups formed Channel Tunnel Group/Franceanche (CTG/F). Their submission to the British and French governments was drawn from the 1975 project, including 11 volumes and a substantial environmental impact statement.

The design and construction was done by the ten construction companies in the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and boring from Sangatte was undertaken by the five French construction companies in the joint venture group GIE Transmanche Construction. The English Terminal and boring from Shakespeare Cliff was undertaken by the five British construction companies in the Trankslink Joint Venture. The two partnerships were linked by TransManche Link (TML), a bi- national project organisation. The Matre d'Oeuvre was a supervisory engineering body employed by Eurotunnel under the terms of the concession that monitored project activity and reported back to the governments and banks.

In France, with its long tradition of infrastructure investment, the project garnered widespread approval and in April 1987 the French National Assembly gave unanimous support and, in June 1987, after a public inquiry, the Senate gave unanimous support. In Britain, select committees examined the proposal, making history by holding hearings outside of Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the third reading of the Channel Tunnel Bill took place in the House of Commons, and was carried by 94 votes to 22. The Channel Tunnel Act gained Royal assent and passed into English law in July of that year.

The Channel Tunnel is a build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) project with a concession. TML would design and build the tunnel, but financing was through a separate legal entity: Eurotunnel. Eurotunnel absorbed CTG/F-M and signed a construction contract with TML; however, the British and French governments controlled final engineering and safety decisions. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55- (later 65-) year operating concession to repay loans and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between Eurotunnel, British Rail and the Socit Nationale des Chemins de fer Franais guaranteeing future revenue in exchange for the railways obtaining half of the tunnel's capacity.

Private funding for such a complex infrastructure project was of unprecedented scale. An initial equity of 45 million was raised by CTG/F-M, increased by 206 million private institutional placement, 770 million was raised in a public share offer that included press and television advertisements, a syndicated bank loan and letter of credit arranged 5 billion. Privately financed, the total investment costs at 1985 prices were 2600 million. At the 1994 completion actual costs were, in 1985 prices, 4650 million: an 80% cost overrun. The cost overrun was partly due to enhanced safety, security, and environmental demands. Financing costs were 140% higher than forecast.

Construction

Eleven tunnel boring machines, working from both sides of the Channel, cut through chalk marl to construct two rail tunnels and a service tunnel. The vehicle shuttle terminals are at Cheriton (part of Folkestone) and Coquelles, and are connected to the British and French motorways (M20 and A16 respectively).

Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994. In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was 4650 million (equivalent to 10152 million today), an 80% cost overrun. At the peak of construction 15,000 people were employed with daily expenditure over 3 million. Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring.

Completion

The Channel Tunnel was opened in Calais on 6 May 1994 by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President Franois Mitterrand

A small, two-inch (50-mm) diameter pilot hole allowed the service tunnel to break through without ceremony on 30 October 1990. On 1 December 1990, Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette broke through the service tunnel with the media watching. Eurotunnel completed the tunnel on time, and the tunnel was officially opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President Franois Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The Queen travelled through the tunnel to Calais on a Eurostar train, which stopped nose to nose with the train that carried President Mitterrand from Paris. Following the ceremony President Mitterrand and the Queen travelled on Le Shuttle to a similar ceremony in Folkestone.

The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), now called High Speed 1, runs 69 miles (111 km) from St Pancras railway station in London to the Channel Tunnel portal at Folkestone in Kent. It cost 5.8 billion. On 16 September 2003 UK Prime Minister Tony Blair opened the first section of High Speed 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007 the Queen officially opened High Speed 1 and St Pancras International station, replacing the original slower link to Waterloo International railway station. On High Speed 1 trains travelling at speeds up to 300 km/h (186 mph), the journey from London to Paris takes 2 hours 15 minutes and London to Brussels takes 1 hour 51 minutes.

In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with Popular Mechanics, selected the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.

Engineering

The Channel Tunnel exhibit at the National Railway Museum in York, England, showing the circular cross section of the tunnel with the overhead line powering a Eurostar train. Also visible is the segmented tunnel lining

Surveying undertaken in the twenty years before tunnel construction confirmed earlier speculations that a tunnel route could be bored through a chalk marl stratum. The chalk marl was conducive to tunnelling, with impermeability, ease of excavation and strength. While on the English side the chalk marl ran along the entire length of the tunnel, on the French side a length of 5 kilometres (3 mi) had variable and difficult geology. The Channel Tunnel consists of three bores: two 7.6-metre (25 ft) diameter rail tunnels, 30 metres (98 ft) apart, 50 kilometres (31 mi) in length with a 4.8-metre (16 ft) diameter service tunnel in between. There are also cross-passages and piston relief ducts. The service tunnel was used as a pilot tunnel, boring ahead of the main tunnels to determine the conditions. English access was provided at Shakespeare Cliff, while French access came from a shaft at Sangatte. The French side used five tunnel boring machines (TBMs), the English side used six. The service tunnel uses Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire safety was a critical design issue.

Between the portals at Beussingue and Castle Hill the tunnel is 50.5 kilometres (31 mi) long, with 3.3 kilometres (2 mi) under land on the French side, 9.3 kilometres (6 mi) under land on the UK side and 37.9 kilometres (24 mi) under sea. This makes the Channel Tunnel the second longest rail tunnel in the world, behind the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but with the longest under-sea section. The average depth is 45 metres (148 ft) below the seabed. On the UK side, of the expected 5 million cubic metres (6.510^6 cu yd) of spoil approximately 1 million cubic metres (1.310^6 cu yd) was used for fill at the terminal site, and the remainder was deposited at Lower Shakespeare Cliff behind a seawall, reclaiming 74 acres (30 ha) of land. This land was then made into the Samphire Hoe Country Park. Environmental impact assessment did not identify any major risks for the project, and further studies into safety, noise, and air pollution were overall positive. However, environmental objections were raised over a high-speed link to London.

Geology

Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed. For the majority of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer)

Successful tunnelling under the channel required a sound understanding of the topography and geology and the selection of the best rock strata through which to tunnel. The geology generally consists of northeasterly dipping Cretaceous strata, part of the northern limb of the Wealden-Boulonnais dome. Characteristics include:

Continuous chalk on the cliffs on either side of the Channel containing no major faulting, as observed by Verstegan in 1698

Four geological strata, marine sediments laid down 90100 million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable Gault Clay. A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in between the chalk marl and gault clay

A 2530-metre (8298 ft) layer of chalk marl (French: craie bleue) in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to present the best tunnelling medium. The chalk has a clay content of 3040% providing impermeability to groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support. Ideally the tunnel would be bored in the bottom 15 metres (49 ft) of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet.

On the English side of the channel, the strata dip less than 5, however, on the French side, this increases to 20. Jointing and faulting is present on both the English and French sides. On the English side, only minor faults of displacement less than 2 metres (7 ft) exist. On the French side, displacements of up to 15 metres (49 ft) are present owing to the Quenocs anticlinal fold. The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remoulded clay. The increased dip and faulting restricted the selection of route on the French side. To avoid confusion microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl. On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder, more brittle, and more fractured than on the English side. This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the French and English sides.

No major geological hazards were identified; however, the Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangaered, and Castle Hill landslip located at the English portal, caused concerns. Identified by the 196465 geophysical survey, the Fosse Dangaered is an infilled valley system extending 80 metres (262 ft) below the seabed, 500 metres (1,640 ft) south of the tunnel route, located mid-channel. A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel, and so the tunnel route was made as far north and deep as possible. The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris. Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing and inserting drainage adits. The service tunnels were pilot tunnels preceding the main tunnels, so that the geology, areas of crushed rock, and zones of high water inflow could be predicted. Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnels, in the form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing.

Surveying

Marine soundings and samplings by Thom de Gamond were carried out during 183367, establishing the seabed depth at a maximum of 55 metres (180 ft) and the continuity of geological strata (layers). Surveying continued over many years, with 166 marine and 70 land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4000 line kilometres of marine geophysical survey completed. Surveys were undertaken in 195859, 196465, 197274 and 198688.

The surveying in 195859 catered for immersed tube and bridge designs as well as a bored tunnel, and thus a wide area was investigated. At this time marine geophysics surveying for engineering projects was in its infancy, with poor positioning and resolution from seismic profiling. The 1964-65 surveys concentrated on a northerly route that left the English coast at Dover harbour; using 70 boreholes, an area of deeply weathered rock with high permeability was located just south of Dover harbour.

Given the previous survey results and access constraints, a more southerly route was investigated in the 197273 survey and the route was confirmed to be feasible. Information for the tunnelling project also came from work before the 1975 cancellation. On the French side at Sangatte a deep shaft with adits was made. On the English side at Shakespeare Cliff, the government allowed 250 metres (820 ft) of 4.5 metres (15 ft) diameter tunnel to be driven. The actual tunnel alignment, method of excavation and support were essentially the same as the 1975 attempt. In the 198697 survey, previous findings were reinforced and the nature of the gault clay and tunnelling medium, chalk marl that made up 85% of the route, were investigated. Geophysical techniques from the oil industry were employed.

Tunnelling

Typical tunnel cross section, with a service tunnel between twin rail tunnels. Shown linking the rail tunnels is a piston relief duct, necessary to manage pressure changes due to the movement of trains

Tunnelling between England and France was a major engineering challenge, with the only precedent being the undersea Seikan Tunnel in Japan. A serious risk with underwater tunnels is major water inflow due to the water pressure from the sea above under weak ground conditions. The Channel Tunnel also had the challenge of timeeing privately funded, early financial return was paramount.

The objective was to construct: two 7.6-metre (25 ft) diameter rail tunnels, 30 metres (98 ft) apart, 50 kilometres (31 mi) in length; a 4.8-metre (16 ft) diameter service tunnel between the two main tunnels; pairs of 3.3-metre (11 ft) diameter cross-passages linking the rail tunnels to the service tunnel at 375-metre (1,230 ft) spacing; piston relief ducts 2-metre (7 ft) diameter connecting the rail tunnels at 250-metre (820 ft) spacing; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels. The service tunnel always preceded the main tunnels by at least 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) to ascertain the ground conditions. There was plenty of experience with tunnelling through chalk in the mining industry. The undersea crossover caverns were a complex engineering problem. The French cavern was based on the Mount Baker Ridge freeway tunnel in the USA. The UK cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main tunnels to avoid delay.

Precast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were used, but different solutions were used on the English and French sides. On the French side, neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast iron or high-strength reinforced concrete were used. On the English side, the main requirement was for speed and bolting of cast-iron lining segments was only carried out in areas of poor geology. In the UK rail tunnels, eight lining segments plus a key segment were used; on the French side, five segments plus a key segment. On the French side, a 55-metre (180 ft) diameter 75-metre (246 ft) deep grout-curtained shaft at Sangatte was used for access. On the English side, a marshalling area was 140 metres (459 ft) below the top of Shakespeare Cliff, and the New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM) was first applied in the chalk marl here. On the English side, the land tunnels were driven from Shakespeare Cliff, the same place as the marine tunnels, not from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough for all of the drives and, despite environmental objections, tunnel spoil was placed behind a reinforced concrete seawall, on condition of placing the chalk in an enclosed lagoon to avoid wide dispersal of chalk fines. Owing to limited space, the precast lining factory was on the Isle of Grain in the Thames estuary.

On the French side, owing to the greater permeability to water, earth pressure balance TBMs with open and closed modes were used. The TBMs were of a closed nature during the initial 5 kilometres (3 mi), but then operated as open, boring through the chalk marl stratum. This minimised the impact to the ground and allowed high water pressures to be withstood, and it also alleviated the need to grout ahead of the tunnel. The French effort required five TBMs: two main marine machines, one main land machine (the short land drives of 3 km allowed one TBM to complete the first drive then reverse direction and complete the other), and two service tunnel machines. On the English side, the simpler geology allowed faster open-faced TBMs. Six machines were used, all commenced digging from Shakespeare Cliff, three marine-bound and three for the land tunnels. Towards the completion of the undersea drives, the UK TBMs were driven steeply downwards and buried clear of the tunnel. The French TBMs then completed the tunnel and were dismantled. A 900 mm gauge railway was used on the English side during construction.

In contrast to the English machines, which were simply given alphanumeric names, the French tunnelling machines were all named after women: Brigitte, Europa, Catherine, Virginie, Pascaline, Sverine.

Railway design

Interior of Eurotunnel Shuttle, a vehicle shuttle train. The largest railway wagons in the world, the shuttle trains transport vehicles between terminals on either side of the tunnel

Communications

There are three communication systems in the tunnel: concession radio (CR) for mobile vehicles and personnel within Eurotunnel's Concession (terminals, tunnels, coastal shafts); track-to-train radio (TTR) for secure speech and data between trains and the railway control centre; Shuttle internal radio (SIR) for communication between shuttle crew and to passengers over car radios.

Power supply

All tunnel services run on electricity, shared equally from English and French sources. Power is delivered to the locomotives via an overhead line (catenary) at 25 kV 50 Hz.

A large proportion of the railway south of London uses a 750 V DC third rail to deliver electrical power; however since the opening of High Speed 1 there is no need to use the third rail system for any part of the Eurostar journey. High Speed 1, the tunnel itself and the route to Paris has power provided via overhead catenary at 25 kV 50 Hz. The railways in Brussels are also electrified by overhead catenaries, but at 3000 V DC.

Signalling

A cab signalling system is used that gives information directly to train drivers on a display. There is Automatic Train Protection (ATP) that stops the train if the speed differs from that indicated on the in-cab display. TVM430, as used on LGV Nord, is used in the tunnel. The maximum allowed speed is 160 km/h.

Track system

The American Sonneville International Corporation track system consisting of UIC60 rails on 900A grade resting on microcellular EVA pads, bolted into concrete was chosen. The larger European GB+ loading gauge was used rather that one of the smaller UK alternatives; this gauge is maintained on High Speed 1 as far as Barking in east London. ballasted track was ruled out owing to maintenance constraints and a need for geometric stability.

Rolling stock

Eurotunnel Shuttle

Main articles: Eurotunnel Shuttle and Eurotunnel Class 9

Initially 38 Le Shuttle locomotives were commissioned, working in pairs with one at each end of a shuttle train. The shuttles have two separate halves: single and double deck. Each half has two loading/unloading wagons and twelve carrier wagons. Eurotunnel's original order was for nine tourist shuttles.

HGV shuttles also have two halves, with each half containing one loading wagon, one unloading wagon and 14 carrier wagons. There is a club car behind the leading locomotive. Eurotunnel originally ordered six HGV shuttles rakes.

Freight locomotives

See also: British Rail Class 92

Forty-six Class 92 locomotives for hauling freight trains and overnight passenger trains (the Nightstar project, which was abandoned) were commissioned, which can run on both overhead AC and third-rail DC power.

International passenger

Main article: British Rail Class 373

Thirty-one Eurostar trainsased on the French TGVuilt to UK loading gauge, and with many modifications for safety within the tunnel, were commissioned, with split ownership between British Rail, French National Railway Company and National Railway Company of Belgium. British Rail ordered seven more for services north of London.

At the end of 2009, extensive fire-proofing requirements were dropped and Deutsche Bahn received permission to run German Intercity-Express (ICE) trains through the Channel Tunnel in the future.

Service locomotives

Diesel locomotives for rescue and shunting work are Eurotunnel Class 0001 and Eurotunnel Class 0031.

Operation

Usage and services

A Channel Tunnel traffic graph showing the number of passengers and tonnes of freight. Freight vehicle shuttle numbers dropped in 1996/7 owing to closure of the service after the November 1996 fire

The British terminal at Cheriton in west Folkestone. The terminal services shuttle trains that carry vehicles, and is linked to the M20 motorway

The Folkestone White Horse is the last view of England for most passengers embarking at the Cheriton terminal

Services offered by the tunnel are:

Eurotunnel Shuttle (formerly Le Shuttle) roll-on roll-off shuttle service for road vehicles,

Eurostar passenger trains,

through freight trains.

Both the freight and passenger traffic forecasts that led to the construction of the tunnel were largely and universally overestimated. Particularly, Eurotunnel's commissioned forecasts were over-predictions. Although the captured share of Channel crossings (competing with air and sea) was forecast correctly, high competition and reduced tariffs has led to low revenue. Overall cross-Channel traffic was overestimated.

Passenger traffic volumes

Total cross-tunnel passenger traffic volumes peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, then dropped to 14.9 million in 2003, from then rising again to 16.1 million in 2008.

At the time of deciding to build the tunnel, 15.9 million passengers were predicted for Eurostar trains in the opening year. In 1995, the first full year, actual numbers were a little over 2.9 million, growing to 7.1 million in 2000, then dropping again to 6.3 million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by the lack of a high-speed connection on the British side. After the completion of High Speed 1 (formerly CTRL) to London in two stages in 2003 and 2007, traffic increased. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers in cross-Channel-Tunnel traffic, a 10% increase over the previous year, despite traffic limitations due to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire.

 Year 

Passengers transported...

by Eurostar[A]

(actual ticket sales)

by Eurotunnel Passenger Shuttles

(estimated, millions)

Total

(estimated, millions)

1994

~100,000

0.2

0.3

1995

2,920,309

4.4

7.3

1996

4,995,010

7.9

12.9

1997

6,004,268

8.6

14.6

1998

6,307,849

12.1

18.4

1999

6,593,247

11.0

17.6

2000

7,130,417

9.9

17.0

2001

6,947,135

9.4

16.3

2002

6,602,817

8.6

15.2

2003

6,314,795

8.6

14.9

2004

7,276,675

7.8

15.1

2005

7,454,497

8.2

15.7

2006

7,858,337

7.8

15.7

2007

8,260,980

7.9

16.2

2008

9,113,371

7.0

16.1

A only passengers taking Eurostar to cross the Channel

Freight traffic volumes

Cross-tunnel freight traffic volumes have been erratic, with a decrease during 1997 due to a closure caused by a fire in a freight shuttle. The total freight crossings increased over the period, indicating the substitutability of the tunnel by sea crossings. The tunnel has achieved a cross-Channel freight traffic market share close to or above Eurotunnel's 1980s predictions but Eurotunnel's 1990 and 1994 predictions were overestimates.

For freight transported on through freight trains, the first year freight prediction was 7.2 million gross tonnes, however, the 1995 figure was 1.3 million gross tonnes. Through freight volumes peaked in 1998 at 3.1 million tonnes. However, with continuing problems, this figure fell back to 1.21 million tonnes in 2007, increasing again slightly to 1.24 million tonnes in 2008.

However, together with that carried on freight shuttles, freight traffic growth has occurred since opening, with 6.4 million tonnes carried in 1995, 18.4 million tonnes recorded in 2003 and 19.6 million tonnes in 2007.

 Year 

Freight transported...

by through freight trains

(actual tonnes)

by Eurotunnel Truck Shuttles

(estimated, million tonnes)

Total

(estimated, million tonnes)

1994

0

0.8

0.8

1995

1,349,802

5.1

6.4

1996

2,783,774

6.7

9.5

1997

2,925,171

3.3

6.2

1998

3,141,438

9.2

12.3

1999

2,865,251

10.9

13.8

2000

2,947,385

14.7

17.6

2001

2,447,432

15.6

18.0

2002

1,463,580

15.6

17.1

2003

1,743,686

16.7

18.4

2004

1,889,175

16.6

18.5

2005

1,587,790

17.0

18.6

2006

1,569,429

16.9

18.5

2007

1,213,647

18.4

19.6

2008

~1,240,000[B]

14.2

15.4

B From October 2007, Eurotunnel invoices through railfreight by trains rather than tonne.

Eurotunnel's freight subsidiary is Europorte 2. In September 2006 EWS, the UK's largest rail freight operator, announced that owing to cessation of UK-French government subsidies of 52 million per annum to cover the Channel Tunnel "Minimum User Charge" (a subsidy of around 13,000 per train, at a traffic level of 4,000 trains per annum), freight trains would stop running after 30 November.

Economic performance

Shares in Eurotunnel were issued at 3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to 11.00. Delays and cost overruns led to the share price dropping; during demonstration runs in October 1994 the share price reached an all-time low value. Eurotunnel suspended payment on its debt in September 1995 to avoid bankruptcy. In December 1997 the British and French governments extended Eurotunnel's operating concession by 34 years to 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel occurred in mid-1998, reducing debt and financial charges. Despite the restructuring The Economist reported in 1998 that to break even Eurotunnel would have to increase fares, traffic and market share for sustainability. A cost benefit analysis of the Channel Tunnel indicated that there were few impacts on the wider economy and few developments associated with the project, and that the British economy would have been better off if the tunnel had not been constructed.

Under the terms of the Concession, Eurotunnel was obliged to investigate a cross-Channel road tunnel. In December 1999 road and rail tunnel proposals were presented to the British and French governments, but it was stressed that there was not enough demand for a second tunnel. A three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of control zones wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel, with the French border controls on the UK side of the tunnel and vice versa. For certain city-to-city trains, the train itself represents a control zone. A binational emergency plan coordinates UK and French emergency activities.

In 1999 Eurostar posted its first ever net profits, having previously made a loss of 925m in 1995.

Terminals

A Peugeot 807 entering a shuttle wagon at the French terminal at Coquelles near Calais in northern France

The terminals sites are at Cheriton (Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (Calais in France). The terminals are unique facilities designed to transfer vehicles from the motorway onto trains at a rate of 700 cars and 113 heavy vehicles per hour. The UK site uses the M20 motorway. The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the shuttle. The area of the UK site was severely constrained and the design was challenging. The French layout was achieved more easily. To achieve design output, the shuttles accept cars on double-decks; for flexibility, ramps were placed inside the shuttles to provide access to the top decks. At Folkestone there is 20 kilometres (12 mi) of mainline track and 45 turnouts with eight platforms. At Calais there is 30 kilometres (19 mi) of track with 44 turnouts. At the terminals the shuttle trains traverse a figure eight to reduce uneven wear on the wheels.

Regional impact

A 1996 report from the European Commission predicted that Kent and Nord-Pas de Calais had to face increased traffic volumes due to general growth of cross-Channel traffic and traffic attracted by the tunnel. In Kent, a high-speed rail line to London would transfer traffic from road to rail. Kent's regional development would benefit from the tunnel, but being so close to London restricts the benefits. Gains are in the traditional industries and are largely dependent on the development of Ashford International passenger station, without which Kent would be totally dependent on London's expansion. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys a strong internal symbolic effect of the Tunnel which results in significant gains in manufacturing.

The removal of a bottleneck by means like the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily induce economic gains in all adjacent regions, the image of a region being connected to the European high-speed transport and active political response are more important for regional economic development. Tunnel-induced regional development is small compared to general economic growth. The South East of England is likely to benefit developmentally and socially from faster and cheaper transport to continental Europe, but the benefits are unlikely to be equally distributed throughout the region. The overall environmental impact is almost certainly negative.

Five years after the opening of the tunnel, there were few and small impacts on the wider economy, and it was difficult to identify major developments associated with the tunnel. It has been postulated that the British economy would have actually been better off without the costs from the construction project, both Eurotunnel and Eurostar, companies heavily involved in the Channel Tunnel's construction and operation, have had to resort to large amounts of government aid to deal with debts amounted. Eurotunnel has been described as being in a serious situation.

Incidents

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Fires

Main articles: 1996 Channel Tunnel fire and 2008 Channel Tunnel fire

There have been three fires in the Channel Tunnel that were significant enough to close the tunnelll on the heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttlesnd other more minor incidents.

During an "invitation only" testing phase on 9 December 1994 a fire broke out in a Ford Escort car whilst its owner had been loading it on to the upper deck of a tourist shuttle. The fire started at approximately 10:00 with the shuttle train stationary in the Folkestone terminal and was extinguished around 40 minutes later with no passenger injuries.

On 18 November 1996 a fire broke out on a heavy goods vehicle shuttle wagon in the tunnel but nobody was seriously hurt. The exact cause is unknown, although it was not a Eurotunnel equipment or rolling stock problem; it may have been due to arson of a heavy goods vehicle. It is estimated that the heart of the fire reached 1,000 C (1,800 F), with the tunnel severely damaged over 46 metres (151 ft), with some 500 metres (1,640 ft) affected to some extent. Full operation recommenced six months after the fire.

The tunnel was closed for several hours on 21 August 2006, when a truck on an HGV shuttle train caught fire. On 11 September 2008 a fire occurred in the Channel Tunnel at 13:57 GMT. The incident started on a freight-carrying vehicle train travelling towards France. The event occurred 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from the French entrance to the tunnel. No one was killed but several people were taken to hospitals suffering from smoke inhalation, and minor cuts and bruises. The tunnel was closed to all traffic, with the undamaged South Tunnel reopening for limited services two days later. Full service resumed on 9 February 2009 after repairs costing 60 million.

Train failures

On the night of 19/20 February 1996, approximately 1,000 passengers became trapped in the Channel Tunnel when two British Rail Class 373 trains on continent-bound Eurostar service broke down owing to electronic failures caused by snow and ice.

On 3 August 2007 an electrical failure lasting six hours caused passengers to be trapped in the tunnel on a Eurotunnelshuttle crossing.

On the evening of 18 December 2009, during the December 2009 European snowfall, five London-bound trains operating Eurostar services failed inside the tunnel, trapping 2,000 passengers in the tunnel overnight. The large number of failed trains meant that both running tunnels were blocked. Five Class 373 trains had departed from Brussels and Paris and encountered cold temperatures in Northern France, the coldest for eight years. A Eurotunnel spokesperson explained that the problem had arisen because of 'fluffy snow' in France, which had evaded the 'winterisation' shields designed to stop snow getting into the electrics. Electrical failure was then caused by the transition from the cold air in France to the warm atmosphere inside the tunnel. Four of the failed trains had been carrying passengers, with the fifth being empty; one train from Brussels had been turned back to Brussels before reaching the tunnel. Two trains were hauled out of the tunnel using diesel-powered Eurotunnel Class 0001. The blocking of the Channel Tunnel led to the implementation of Operation Stack, the transformation of the M20 motorway into a linear car park.

Problems started at around 21:00, with Kent fire brigade being alerted at 21:46. The journeys of those involved took between eleven and sixteen hours. Snow that had built up on the trains then melted in the heat of the tunnel, the water causing electrical faults. Of the five Class 373 trains and two turned back:

18:59 Brusselsondon (9157); towed to London St Pancras by a Eurotunnel diesel locomotive. Delay of 3 hours 49 minutes.

18:43 Parisondon (9053); 700 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel. Passengers taken to Ashford International railway station, for conventional trains to London. Late into London by 12 hours, arriving at 08:00 the next morning.

19:13 Parisondon (9055); Coupled to adjacent 20:13 Eurostar train behind and dragged out by diesel locomotive, then continued to London. Hauled to Folkestone and picked up passengers from 20:13 Paris service behind it.

19:37 Disneylandondon (9057); 664 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel and taken via France.

20:13 Parisondon (9059); Coupled to adjacent 19:13 Eurostar train in front, passengers transferred to the earlier 19:13 train for journey to London or taken via Folkestone and transported in five coaches by road to London.

20:29 Brusselsondon (9163), held at Calais then turned back to Brussels before reaching the Channel Tunnel.

21:13 Parisondon (9063), held at Calais then turned back to Paris before reaching the Channel Tunnel.

The occasion was the first time during the fifteen years that a Eurostar train had to be evacuated inside the tunnel itself; the failing of four at once being described as "unprecedented". The Channel Tunnel reopened at 05:40 CET the following morning.

The following evening, on 19 December 2009, an extra Eurostar service from Paris broke down. The train successfully negotiated the Channel Tunnel itself, then broke down outside. A second train was sent to tow the first to London, but failed at 18:25 while trying to haul it up a steep incline crossing Thurrock Viaduct on the outskirts of London. Eurostar passenger services restarted on 22 December 2009.

Nirj Deva, Member of the European Parliament for South East England, has called on Eurostar chief executive Richard Brown to resign over the incidents.

A further Class 373 unit on Brusselsondon service broke down in the tunnel on 7 January 2010. The train had 236 passengers on board and was towed to Ashford; other trains that had not yet reached the tunnel were turned back.

An independent report on the 18/19 December 2009 incidents was issued on 12 February 2010. The report was compiled by Christopher Garnett (former CEO of Great North Eastern Railway) and Claude Gressier (a French transport expert) and made 21 recommendations.

Asylum and immigration

Immigrants and would-be asylum seekers have been known to use the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had already attracted international press attention, and the French Red Cross opened a refugee centre at Sangatte in 1999, using a warehouse once used for tunnel construction; by 2002 it housed up to 1500 persons at a time, most of them trying to get to the UK. At one point, large numbers came from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, but African and Eastern European countries are also represented.

Most migrants who got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train, but others used Eurostar. Though the facilities were fenced, airtight security was deemed impossible; refugees would even jump from bridges onto moving trains. In several incidents people were injured during the crossing; others tampered with railway equipment, causing delays and requiring repairs. Eurotunnel said it was losing 5m per month because of the problem. A dozen refugees have died in crossing attempts.

In 2001 and 2002, several riots broke out at Sangatte and groups of refugees (up to 550 in a December 2001 incident) stormed the fences and attempted to enter en masse. Immigrants have also arrived as legitimate Eurostar passengers without proper entry papers.

Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of Sangatte, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre. The United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed the UK for its lax asylum rules and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy. The cause clbre nature of the problem even included journalists detained as they followed refugees onto railway property.

In 2002, after the European Commission told France that it was in breach of European Union rules on the free transfer of goods, because of the delays and closures as a result of its poor security, a double fence was built at a cost of 5 million, reducing the numbers of refugees detected each week reaching Britain on goods trains from 250 to almost none. Other measures included CCTV cameras and increased police patrols. At the end of 2002, the Sangatte centre was closed after the UK agreed to take some of its refugees.

See also: asylum shopping

Safety

The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air ventilation, and for emergency evacuation. The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the tunnel. The service vehicles are rubber-tyred with a buried guidance wire system. Twenty-four STTS vehicles were made, and are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and in emergencies. "Pods" with different purposes, up to a payload of 2.55 t (2.85.5 tons), are inserted into the side of the vehicles. The STTS vehicles cannot turn around within the tunnel, and are driven from either end. The maximum speed is 80 km/h (50 mph) when the steering is locked. A smaller fleet of fifteen Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS) were introduced to supplement the STTSs. The LADOGS have a short wheelbase with a 3.4 m (11 ft) turning circle allowing two-point turns within the service tunnel. Steering cannot be locked like the STTS vehicles, and maximum speed is 50 km/h (31 mph). Pods up to 1 tonne can be loaded onto the rear of the vehicles. Drivers in the tunnel sit on the right, and the vehicles drive on the left. Owing to the risk of French personnel driving on their native right side of the road, sensors in the road vehicles alert the driver if the vehicle strays to the right side of the tunnel.

The three tunnels contain 6,000 tonnes (6,600 tons) of air that needs to be conditioned for comfort and safety. Air is supplied from ventilation buildings at Shakespeare Cliff and Sangatte, with each building capable of full duty providing 100% standby capacity. Supplementary ventilation also exists on either side of the tunnel. In the event of a fire, ventilation is used to keep smoke out of the service tunnel and move smoke in one direction in the main tunnel to give passengers clean air. The Channel Tunnel was the first mainline railway tunnel to have special cooling equipment. Heat is generated from traction equipment and drag. The design limit was set at 30 C (86 F), using a mechanical cooling system with refrigeration plants on both the English and French sides that run chilled water circulating in pipes within the tunnel.

Trains travelling at high speed create piston-effect pressure changes that can affect passenger comfort, ventilation systems, tunnel doors, fans and the structure of the trains, and drag on the trains. Piston relief ducts of 2-metre (7 ft) diameter were chosen to solve the problem, with 4 ducts per kilometre to give close to optimum results. Unfortunately this design led to unacceptable lateral forces on the trains so a reduction in train speed was required and restrictors were installed in the ducts.

The safety issue of a fire on a passenger-vehicle shuttle garnered much attention, with Eurotunnel itself noting that fire was the risk gathering the most attention in a 1994 Safety Case for three reasons: ferry companies opposed to passengers being allowed to remain with their cars; Home Office statistics indicating that car fires had doubled in ten years; and the long length of the tunnel. Eurotunnel commissioned the UK Fire Research Station to give reports of vehicle fires, as well as liaising with Kent Fire Brigade to gather vehicle fire statistics over one year. Fire tests took place at the French Mines Research Establishment with a mock wagon used to investigate how cars burned. The wagon door systems are designed to withstand fire inside the wagon for 30 minutes, longer than the transit time of 27 minutes. Wagon air conditioning units help to purge dangerous fumes from inside the wagon before travel. Each wagon has a fire detection and extinguishing system, with sensing of ions or ultraviolet radiation, smoke and gases that can trigger halon gas to quench a fire. Since the Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) wagons are not covered, fire sensors are located on the loading wagon and in the tunnel itself. A 10-inch (250 mm) water main in the service tunnel provides water to the main tunnels at 125-metre (410 ft) intervals. The ventilation system can control smoke movement. Special arrival sidings exist to accept a train that is on fire, as the train is not allowed to stop whilst on fire in the tunnel. Eurotunnel has banned a wide range of hazardous goods from travelling in the tunnel. Two STTS vehicles with firefighting pods are on duty at all times, with a maximum delay of 10 minutes before they reach a burning train.

See also

British Rail Class 373

Irish Sea tunnel

Japan-Korea Undersea Tunnel

List of Rail megaprojects

Samphire Hoe

Notes

^ "The Channel Tunnel". raileurope.com. http://www.raileurope.com/us/rail/eurostar/channel_tunnel.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b Institute of Civil Engineers p. 95

^ "Turkey Building the World's Deepest Immersed Tube Tunnel". Popular Mechanics. http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/4217338.html?series=23. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b Chisholm, Michael (1995). Britain on the edge of Europe. London: Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 0415119219. 

^ a b Reynolds, Christopher (19 May 1996). "Seven Wonders of the World: The Modern List". The Plain Dealer. 

^ a b Whiteside p. 17

^ "The Channel Tunnel". library.thinkquest.org. http://library.thinkquest.org/5983/pages/chunnel.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j Wilson pp. 1421

^ a b Flyvbjerg et al. p. 12

^ "Four men caught in Channel Tunnel". BBC News. 4 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7171985.stm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ "Sangatte refugee camp". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/23/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1. Retrieved 19 July 2009}. 

^ "Subterranea Britannica: Channel Tunnel - 1880 attempt". subbrit.org. http://www.subbrit.org.uk/sb-sites/sites/c/channel_tunnel_1880_attempt/index.shtml. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Whiteside pp. 1823

^ "The Proposed Tunnel Between England and France". The New York Times. 7 August 1866. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9A00EFD9133DE53BBC4F53DFBE66838D679FDE. Retrieved 3 January 2008. 

^ Gladstone, William (1902). A. W. Hutton & H.J. Cohen. ed. The Speeches Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone On Home Rule, Criminal Law, Welsh And Irish Nationality, National Debt And The Queen's Reign. The Speeches And Public Addresses Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P.. X. London: Methuen And Company. 

^ Kirkland pp. 1011

^ a b c Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 9697

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 3

^ a b "On this day: Tunnel links UK and Europe". BBC News. 1 December 1990. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1/newsid_2516000/2516473.stm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b c Anderson, pp. xvivii

^ Harlow, John (2 April 1995). "Phantom Trains Wreak Havoc in Channel Tunnel". The Times. 

^ "ingenious: Navvies". ingenious. 11 March 2008. http://www.ingenious.org.uk/Read/Identity/RailwaysandIdentity/Navvies/. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ "Thirteen workers die as safety standards are ignored in race to build Olympic sites". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/thirteen-workers-die-as-safety-standards-are-ignored-in-race-to-build-olympic-sites-558698.html. Retrieved 26 September 2008. 

^ Glenn Frankel (31 October 1990). "Britain and France Link Up-at Last". The Washington Post. 

^ "Chunnel birthday". Evening Mail (Birmingham Post & Mail Ltd). 2 December 2000. 

^ a b "On This Day - 1994: President and Queen open Chunnel". BBC News. 6 May 1994. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/6/newsid_2511000/2511653.stm. Retrieved 12 January 2008. 

^ Woodman, Peter (14 November 2007). "High-speed Rail Link Finally Completed". Press Association National Newswire. 

^ "New high-speed rail line opens to link Britain to Europe". Channel NewsAsia (MediaCorp News). 15 November 2007. 

^ Gilbert, Jane (1 December 2006). "`Chunnel' workers link France and Britain". The Daily Post (New Zealand) (APN New Zealand Ltd). 

^ Kirkland p. 13

^ Institute of Civil Engineers p. 208

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 51

^ Harris, C.S. et al., ed (1996). Engineering Geology of the Channel Tunnel. London: Thomas Telford. p. 57. ISBN 0727720457. 

^ a b c Kirkland pp. 2150

^ a b c Kirkland pp. 2226

^ a b c d Kirkland pp. 63128

^ Wilson p. 38

^ Kirkland p. 29

^ Wilson p. 44

^ Kirkland pp. 117128

^ Pierre-Jean Pompee. "Channel Tunnel: Tunnel's Construction". pagesperso-orange.fr. http://pagesperso-orange.fr/batisseurs-tunnel/3tunnels.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Kirkland pp. 129132

^ Kirkland pp. 134148

^ a b Article: Railway electric traction 9 August 2009

^ Kirkland pp. 149155

^ Article-de: Eurotunnel#Betrieb 9 August 2009

^ a b Kirkland pp. 157174

^ "Strategic Freight Network: The Longer-Term Vision". Department for Transport. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/rail/strategyfinance/strategy/freightnetwork/. Retrieved 17 May 2009. 

^ Kirkland pp. 175211

^ Edmonds, Sam (16 December 2009). "Deutsche Bahn gets access to Channel Tunnel". Deutsche Welle. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5018915,00.html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf. Retrieved 20 December 2009. 

^ "Deutsche Bahn allowed through chunnel". Austin News. 16 December 2009. http://www.austinnews.net/story/578370. Retrieved 20 December 2009. 

^ a b Flyvbjerg et al. p. 22

^ a b c d e f g Ricard Anguera (May 2006). "The Channel Tunneln ex post economic evaluation". Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 40 (4): 291315. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2005.08.009. 

^ a b "Eurotunnel 2008 traffic and revenue figures". Eurotunnel. 15 January 2009. http://www.eurotunnel.com. Retrieved 15 January 2009. 

^ a b c d e "Traffic figures". Eurotunnel. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTheGroup/ukcOperations/ukpTraffic. Retrieved 15 January 2009. 

^ a b "Study Report Annex 2". Initial East Kent and Ashford Sub-Regional Study for The South East Plan. South East England Regional Assembly. June 2004. pp. Table 11. http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/southeastplan/key/study_areas/initial_studies/east_kent_ashford_annex 2.xls. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ "Eurotunnel 2003 Revenue & Traffic". Eurotunnel. 20 January 2004. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2004/ukcJanuary2004/ukpPr0401Revenue.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ a b "Eurotunnel: 2005 Traffic and revenue figures.". Eurotunnel. 16 January 2006. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2006/ukcJanuary2006/ukpPr06012005TrafficAndRevenue.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ a b c "Eurotunnel 2007 Traffic and Revenue figures: a remarkable year". Eurotunnel. 15 January 2008. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2008/ukcJanuary2008/ukpPr0801TrafficAndRevenue2007.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ "Eurotunnel gets backing for freight service". AFX (Agence France Presse). 28 October 2004. 

^ Dominic O'Connell (3 September 2006). "Chunnel cash row threatens freight trains". London: The Times. http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article626416.ece. Retrieved 3 September 2006. 

^ "Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition". josephcoates.com. http://www.josephcoates.com/pdf_files/268_Megaprojects_and_Risk.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 3234

^ Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W (2003). Megaprojects and Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521009464. 

^ "Eurotunnel unveils plans for second link". Birmingham Post. 6 January 2000. 

^ "The CPS: Channel Tunnel". Crown Prosecution Service. http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section2/chapter_f.html#_Toc44570638. Retrieved 11 March 2008. 

^ Kirkland p. 331

^ Kirkland pp. 255270

^ European Commission pp. 220222

^ European Commission pp. 248252

^ Fayman, Sonia; Metge, Pierre (September 1995). "The regional impact of the Channel Tunnel: Qualitative and quantitative analysis". European Planning Studies 3 (3): 333. 

^ Button, Kenneth (July 1990). "The Channel Tunnel: The Economic Implications for the South East of England". The Geographical Journal 156 (2): 187199. doi:10.2307/635327. 

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 6869

^ "Coming soon: the Dome on wheels". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200104020018. Retrieved 28 April 2009. 

^ Harrison, Michael (10 February 2004). "Eurotunnel calls for government support after record 1.3bn loss". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/eurotunnel-calls-for-government-support-after-record-acircpound13bn-loss-569459.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ "Eurotunnel has 4bn too much debt". The Telegraph. 12 January 2005. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2917255/Eurotunnel-has-4bn-too-much-debt.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ "Debt-laden Channel tunnel rail link is 'nationalised'". The Guardian. 21 February 2006. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2006/feb/21/transportintheuk.politics. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ "Facts and figures Eurotunnel 2000-2004/Forecast 2005: Commentry and a suggestion". Adacte.com. June 2005. http://www.adacte.com/economiepolitique/hollandais17062005.doc. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ Wolmar, Christian (10 December 1994). "Fire raises Channel Tunnel fears". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fire-raises-channel-tunnel-fears-1389084.html. Retrieved 25 December 2009. 

^ "Inquiry into the fire on Heavy Goods Vehicle Shuttle 7539 on 18 November 1996". Channel Tunnel Safety Authority. May 1997. ISBN 0115519319. http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/CTSA_ChanTun1996.pdf. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ a b C. J. Kirkland (2002). "The fire in the Channel Tunnel" (PDF). Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 17: 129132. doi:10.1016/S0886-7798(02)00014-7. http://www.ita-aites.org/cms/fileadmin/filemounts/ovion/doc/safety/sydney/OS12.PDF. 

^ "Lorry fire closes Channel Tunnel". BBC News. 21 August 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5271784.stm. Retrieved 21 August 2006. 

^ Rail Accident Investigation Branch (October 2007) Fire on HGV shuttle in the Channel Tunnel 21 August 2006 . Department for Transport. (Report).

^ Robert Wright (12 September 2008). "Channel tunnel fire causes further cancellations". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ad05c7e6-8062-11dd-99a9-000077b07658.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ "Channel Tunnel Fire Evacuation". Sky News. 11 September 2008. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Channel-Tunnel-Closed-Due-To-A-Fire/Article/200809215097705?lpos=UK+News_0&lid=ARTICLE_15097705_Channel+Tunnel+Closed+Due+To+A+Fire. Retrieved 9 March 2009. 

^ "Eurotunnel fully open to traffic". Eurotunnel.com. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2009/ukcFebruary2009/ukpPr0902Eurotunnel-back-to-full-capacity.htm. Retrieved 14 January 2010. 

^ Wolmar, Christian (22 February 1996). "Wrong kind of snow in tunnel...". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/wrong-kind-of-snow-in-tunnel-1320248.html. Retrieved 21 December 2009. 

^ "Delays after Channel Tunnel fault". BBC News. 3 August 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/6929713.stm. Retrieved 14 January 2010. 

^ a b c "Severe Weather Brings Eurostar To A Halt". Sky News. 19 December 2009. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Says-All-Scheduled-Services-Tomorrow-Have-Been-Cancelled/Article/200912315504284. Retrieved 19 December 2009. 

^ Eurostar blames 'fluffy' snow for weekend chaos The Times 21 December 09

^ Eurostar cancels trains over snow - Press Association (21 December 09)

^ Cole, Rob (18 December 2009). "'Nightmare' Over For Stranded Passengers". Sky News. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Trains-Trapped-In-Channel-Tunnel-As-Snow-And-Ice-Brings-Services-To-A-Halt/Article/20091...
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Ipad Review - Pros And Cons Of 1St Gen Ipads Reviewed

A brief iPad review is as below. iPad is basically a device that fills the space between iPod touch and laptops. Though there are a lot of speculations over it, I will put down the the pros and cons for you to decide on your own. If you ask me, I love the device like anything. In my opinion, it's an edge over all netbooks and the colorless kindle eBook readers too. The style, elegance, ease of use that Apple has provided with it is incomparable.

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Pros of Apple iPads

1. Great Starting Price - For a power packed iPad, $ 499 is a decent promotional price to start with. Quite a dealmaker. Everyone expected it to start from $ 599 and above.
2. Sleek weight and Size - iPad being 1.5 pounds in weight and 0.5 inches is awesome. The sleekness quotient of Apple lineage of products took off with this one. It couldn't be handier.
3. iPad Applications- The iPod applications and iTunes store, now on the bigger screen looks even more beautiful. 140,000 apps are already in the offing from the App Store with a dedicated section for apps designed specifically for iPads.
4. iBooks -Once you have downloaded the application, it's a breeze to buy iBooks. And they automatically gets arranged on your virtual bookshelf. And in a typical Apple style, you can tap on the desired book to open up for you.
5. Bigger, Better Photo viewing - What's more amazing is that you can do everything with photos like in an iPhone touch. Simply tap, pinch, zoom in and out, flip and more. You would love the sharp, crisp screen which is so very apple. The Camera Connection Kit also lets import photos from a SD memory card or a camera.
6. The iWork apps work on Mac too- iWork apps for only $9.99 are superb add ons too. Package deal options could make it more desirable.
7. Traditional Keyboard accessory - There always have been school of people resenting the virtual keyboard usage. Now Apple has thoughtfully provided a traditional keyboard along with it, in case you are more comfortable using it. This may make it a little less portable but is a big deal for many. And otherwise, the virtual keyboard is as big as the real one as well.
8. No cellular contract - Yes! no cellular contract is required for the two options for 3G. 250 mb is available for $ 14.99 and for the unlimited data its just $ 29.99.

Cons of 1st Gen iPads

1. Adobe Flash Player - Flash files do make things slow and limiting. This was understandable with iphones but not with iPads. The blue question mark for no flash players is a frustrating thing to see. No one can have a great Web surfing experience without Flash. Apple needs to sort this out with Adobe in whichever way possible or find an alternative with iPad 2.0 soon.
2. Multitasking - The first edition of iPad needs to improve its multitasking abilities. iPads have raised our expectations through the roof. With such a powerful processor, apple should have been able to incorporate multitasking on iPads easily. Like for example, you can't listen to WunderRadio while reading a book unless of course the station is streaming on Safari. We can put up with the battery life getting shorter, but definitely not without multitasking.
3. HDMI Out - Currently there isn't any wireless or an HDTV connection to a TV. Apple TV could get easily replaced if there was an HDTV out. It's a little surprising why they haven't thought of connecting the two most important appliances. And I am pretty sure it will be added in 2nd generation iPads.
4. Camera Option- A front facing camera for video iChat would be an amazing feature for iPads, adding more utility. This can make it hugely popular with every generation. I'm sure it has to do with the price but a camera option is a must, whatsoever.
5. Widescreen Option- You can tap on a movie to see it in either fullscreen or widescreen. It is not as wide as most widescreen formats are but it doesn't make a big difference watching movies on it either.
6. AT&T only for 3G- It is great to have no cellular contracts for 3G but the current AT&T's service has been less than great for iPhone users. This will furthermore clog the network with more devices trying to connect through it. I believe, Verizon could be a more apt alternative for US users.

Well no device is perfect with it's first generation release. And it is surely likely to improve and have added features on the wishlist. But overall Ipad rocks. I plan to make it my all time companion soon. Don't you want it too?

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